程序代写代做代考 algorithm Bayesian Java matlab Applying Machine Learning to Stock Market Trading
Applying Machine Learning to Stock Market Trading
Bryce Taylor
Abstract: In an effort to emulate human investors who read publicly available materials in order to
make decisions about their investments, I write a machine learning algorithm to read headlines from
financial news magazines and make predictions on the directional change of stock prices after a
moderate-length time interval. Using techniques that do not attempt to parse actual meaning from
headlines, I am able to approximate the overall market trends to a reasonable degree, but not well
enough to make money in times of small growth / decline. Analysis indicates that features are present
in the data to make use of headlines for an algorithm, but due to an abundance of extra noisy features
we have not yet been able to determine precisely what these features are. I tried using natural language
processing to produce better features, but the best processors available were not able to interpret the
densely worded headlines well enough to be of use.
Introduction / Motivation:
Twitter provides a standard source of data
to analyze the sentiment of the public and has
been used by many authors to attempt to predict
stock market changes. I believe that a down-fall
of these methods is that they do not directly
attempt to evaluate the value of a stock and can
only be applied to large, well-known companies
and wish to instead develop an algorithm that can
be used to determine how well a company will do
based on what the company actually does.
Motivating examples of this are stock price
reactions to events such as changes in
management and major acquisitions. This would
allow our algorithm to mimic the thought process
of successful investors. I thus analyze news
headlines related to the company to determine
whether the headlines indicate positive news for
the company. Using news sources from more
informed writers should provide much more
dense information than sources that read from
public opinion like twitter. Since news articles
are released intermittently, I wish to design an
algorithm that can make a prediction based on a
single headline since if it has to wait for multiple
headlines, the market will have already reacted to
the first headline.
Data Sources:
I used two types of data to implement this
algorithm: headlines from financial analysts and
historic stock prices. Headlines were manually
collected from the Seeking Alpha website by
performing a search for the stock symbols of each
of the companies, then parsing the results with a
custom Java program. Historic stock prices were
taken from the official NASDAQ website. In
total, over 12000 headlines were available taken
from the past 7 years (the furthest back the
Seeking Alpha website provided articles) from 7
different companies. The companies were:
{“IBM”, “NFLX”, “GOOG”, “ANF”, “MCD”,
“SHLD”, “AAPL”}
The headlines were then tokenized using
the Porter Stemming process (with the exception
of having a token reserved for the stock ticker
symbol of each company used) to produce a set of
features corresponding to the list of symbols that
appeared in the headline and the company about
which the headline was written. Feature vectors
for headlines were condensed into matrix form
and written to matlab-readable files for portions
of the project involving SVMs and PCA.
In order to simulate having to make
decisions on a real life stock market, the data was
divided 70 / 30 into training and testing data,
sorted by the time at which the articles were
published so that all testing data occurred
chronologically after all training data. I initially
used randomized selection of the testing / training
data, but found that this was an unrealistic model
because any algorithm would then know how well
each company did on average over the testing
period since it was the same as the training
period, giving it unreasonable hindsight.
Research Questions:
For each of the algorithms, the goal was to
answer a question of the form:
“Given a headline released today about some
company X, will the stock price of X rise by more
than P percent over the next time period T?”
As baselines, we compared our algorithm
to two simple algorithms: always responding yes
and always responding no. A third algorithm was
also used for comparison that took the best of
these two results, retrospectively choosing the
better of those two algorithms as its algorithm
(note that this algorithm can never have an error
rate above 50%). This algorithm represents
following the general market trend, buying in an
up time and shorting in a down time.
Based on research by Eugene F. Fama,
Lars Peter Hansen and Robert J. Shiller for their
Nobel prize-winning paper in Economics, I chose
T to be 3 months, in particular much longer than a
week (information taken from Nobel Prize press
release:http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/ec
onomic-sciences/laureates/2013/press.html). This
is because their paper indicates it is impossible to
predict prices based on public information in the
short term. Longer time periods were considered,
but due to only having access to 7 years of data
and making predictions based on a single headline
at a time, I decided to use T=3months. P was
varied over different trials; a large value of P
indicates looking for the most extreme increases
in price (i.e. a chance to make the most money).
Bayesian Classifier:
For my initial tests, I chose to use a simple
multinomial Bayesian classifier that analyzed
Figure 1
headlines based on the presence of each token in
the headline. Since there were a total of 51,208
tokens, this resulted in a lot of tokens being used
infrequently (and thus having inaccurate
measurements of the probabilities used in the
Bayesian model), even after simple Laplace
smoothing. As a second test, I removed any token
that did not occur at least 10 times in the
headlines to create a second set of 693 features
for use in the algorithm. The results of running
Naive Baye’s are shown as P ranges from 0 to 0.2
in Figure 1 on the previous page. Using all of the
features, the error was sometimes above 0.5,
which is unacceptable for most trading algorithms
and was generally outperformed by the algorithm
with reduced features since that algorithm never
had testing error above 0.5. Neither algorithm
was able to beat the hardest baseline, “best of
two” algorithms, but the reduced feature
algorithm followed it reasonably well, possibly
well enough to use on real markets.
Using data collected from the first run of
my Bayesian classifier, Table 1 shows the top 5
most indicative symbols (that occurred at least 10
times in the headlines) on both ends of the
spectrum for classifications run with P=0. Some
of the symbols are not surprising; discussion of a
“split” likely means the stock price will drop in
half if the split happens which would be marked
negative by our algorithm (even though it is not
actually bad for investors); similarly tokens like
tough and event are logical since they indicate
difficult times for the company and the company
being involved with events, which is usually
deemed positive. This bodes well for the general
problem of extracting investing advice from
headlines.
In an attempt to improve accuracy even
further, I tried selecting only the top 20 most
indicative tokens on both ends of the spectrum
and rerunning the classifier. However, it
Symbol Positive probability to
negative probability
ratio
Buzz 0.08136
Split 0.1914
Mini 0.2169
Gross 0.2169
Tough 0.2169
Carrier 3.905
Touch 3.905
Effort 3.905
Event 5.857
Affect 6.508
Table 1
performed significantly worse than using 693
tokens or using all of the available tokens, so we
likely removed important features from the
headlines.
Precision / Recall Analysis
As a quick check, I computed the error on
positive headlines and the error on negative
headlines as P varied (varying P varies the
proportion of headlines that are actually positive
or negative). The positive error was strictly
increasing (0.15 to 0.93) while the negative error
was strictly decreasing (0.85 to 0.052, graphs
omitted to save space). These numbers are better
than the precision / recall which would be given
by the “best of two” algorithm (always resulting
in one of the errors being 1), but since they follow
the proportion of headlines marked positive, it
means that is one of the most indicative features
in my model (as opposed to the headlines
themselves).
Support Vector Machines:
After converting the data to Matlab
format, I trained Support Vector Machines
(SVMs) on the data for all of the same trials as
the Bayesian classifier. Unfortunately, Matlab
was unable to process the full data set (12K
headlines with 50K features each), so I only
tested it on the reduced feature data set and the
minimal feature data set. The results were almost
identical to the Bayesian classifier regardless as to
which type of SVM was used (polynomial, linear,
etc) and roughly approximated the best baseline
solution, but did not match or beat it.
Principal Component Analysis:
In order to determine how useful the
features I had actually were, I ran principal
component analysis on the data and then tested
linear SVMs on several of the top principal
components. Matlab’s built-in principal
component function was used to identify the
principal components and the data with all 693
features was then projected onto this space to
create new training and testing data for the SVM.
Table 2 on this page shows the error rates as a
function of how many of the top principal
components were used.
There are several things to take away from
these results: first, using a small number of the
top principal components performs nearly as well
as the baseline and slightly better than Naive
Baye’s (given a testing size of ~3500, these are
likely a statistically significant differences).
Thus, some portion of the data does hold
information significant to predicting stock prices.
Furthermore, adding more features does not
reduce the error rate further and in fact increases
the error rate by a significant amount. This means
that many of the “features” (those that contribute
to the non-top principal components) are
effectively noise for the purposes of satisfying our
hypotheses.
Number Components Error
1 0.5127
2 0.4045
3 0.3982
4 0.3982
5 0.3982
6 0.3939
7 0.4172
8 0.4049
9 0.4038
10 0.4133
50 0.4175
200 0.4503
693 (MAX) 0.4767
BAYES 0.4091
BASELINE 0.3859
Table 2
Manual Keyword Selection
Another method I tried for feature
selection was to manually select features human
insight indicates should be indicative. The key
words corresponding to these tokens are shown
below in Table 3 with their frequency in
positively and negatively classified headlines; few
of these stand out as strong indicators (not
stronger than for example the average number of
times stocks rose on the training period).
Training on these symbols alone meant that few
of the headlines could be processed total (~1300)
and resulted in an error of 0.38 when classifying
with P=0, notably worse than the baseline error of
0.33 on the same set.
Symbol Positive
Frequency
Negative
Frequency
Ratio
Buy 0.217 0.182 1.193
Sell 0.064 0.068 0.953
Good 0.079 0.074 1.065
Growth 0.158 0.165 0.956
Beat 0.068 0.072 0.940
New 0.253 0.254 0.997
Stop 0.018 0.008 2.179
Disappoint 0.004 0.013 0.323
Win 0.028 0.027 1.006
Bullish 0.048 0.042 1.138
Risk 0.028 0.057 0.484
Bad 0.035 0.036 0.968
Table 3
Natural Language Processing:
After failing to beat our baseline algorithm
using any of the standard features selection
techniques, I decided to try using Natural
Language Processing to provide better features
for the learning algorithms. In particular, the best
feature would be an indication of whether or not
the article headline spoke of the company
positively or negatively. This is known as
sentiment analysis in natural language processing.
Stanford has a publicly available Natural
Language Processing Toolkit that provides
sentiment analysis to sentences with high
accuracy (>80%). Unfortunately, when tested on
the headlines (re-parsed into sentence-like format)
, the processor was unable to achieve high success
rates for non-neutral sentences when compared to
my own reading of the headline. In a random
sample of 20 headlines the processor deemed
non-neutral (i.e. positive or negative sentiment), I
agreed with exactly half (10) of the assessments.
This is likely due to the fact that headlines are
very short, often requiring complex parsing in
order to fit them into a small space and thus do
not really resemble the sentences the processor
was trained in (which used normal, full-text
sentences). Natural language processors would
need to be specifically tailored to processing
headline-like data to be able to make a
meaningful contribution towards answering my
research questions.
Conclusion:
Overall, my work indicates that a
sophisticated model able to beat overall market
trends by reading financial news headlines cannot
be easily found without fairly sophisticated
human-like processing of the headlines.
However, using my work, one would be able to
run an algorithm that does notably better than
random chance and can do better than not
investing at all by roughly following both positive
and negative market trends.
Future Work:
After working on this project all quarter,
there are a couple of ways that it might be
extended to better answer the question:
• Customize natural language processing
tools to work well with headlines
• Make predictions based on more than one
headline at a time; this may allow for
better long-term analysis of a company’s
potential
